History of District Nursing in Australia Essay Example for Free

History of District Nursing in Australia Essay District nurses are those senior nurses who are involved in managing care in a community by leading teams of both support workers and community nurses. This particular paper talks about the history of district nursing since its emergence in England over one hundred and fifty years ago. It then discusses the progress of district nursing in other countries, in this case, Australia. Nursing can be defined as a science and an art with an exceptional body of knowledge drawing from behavioral, physical, and social sciences (Funnel et al, 2005, p. ). It is a profession that is unique in its own way because it addresses families and individuals responses to health problems, health maintenance, as well as health promotion. Over one hundred years ago, nursing was defined by Florence Nightingale as the act of making use of a patient’s environment in a bid to helping that particular patient recover. To facilitate for quick recovery, she considered a clean, quiet, and well ventilated environment as very essential. Nursing helps in facilitation of prescribed therapy, assists patients to be independent of assistance, and also help the patients to function to their maximum potential as soon as possible. Various themes have been associated with the definition of nursing. Some describe nursing as an art, as a science, that nursing is about caring, it is holistic, that it is client oriented, adaptive, and that nursing is generally a helping profession. The historical accounts of the profession clearly bring out the revolving nature of nursing. The word nurse was derived from a Latin word which means to cherish or nourish. In a human being’s life, birth, death, sickness, and injury are all very common. There has therefore always been that need to take care of others, especially those in need. Funnel et al state that some of the earliest and most organized nursing carried out by men who worked in hospitals which were established by military religious orders at the period the crusades. Some examples included the knights of St. Lazarus, and the Knights of St.  John of Jerusalem. Henry VIII, during the sixteenth century, commanded the closure of English monasteries and the confiscation of their wealth as well. What this meant was that all the sick and destitute people had no where to stay and were hence left to die. This then saw the construction of work houses which were used to house the poor and especially the sick. Here they lived in very bad conditions and were at the same time required to work in order to earn th eir continued stay there. Conditions in London got to a very desperate state, and after many petitions from the citizens, Henry VIII had no option but to allow for the re-founding of some hospitals like St Mary’s, St Thomas’s, as well as St Bartholomew’s. These hospitals despite their reopening were very poorly staffed and were characterized by untrained workers whose characters were very poor. Patients who were admitted in these hospitals lived under appalling conditions in overcrowded wards Funnel et al add that the early 18th and mid 19th century came to be termed as nursing â€Å"Dark Ages† of nursing. It was an age where caring of the sick and nurses’ status reached to the lowest levels ever imaginable (5). A clergyman named Theodor Fliedner in 1836 founded the institution Kaiserwerth where they trained specially chosen women as deaconesses. The institution was then to be famous for its high standards and levels of training as well as the care given to the sick. The institution then grew very famous and finally became the centre for training nurses and as a result received very many trainees, and from all parts of the world. Some of these trainees later opened up centers in their respective countries. Modern nursing has hence evolved as a result of the influence Kaiserwerth had on individuals like Florence Nightingle. She had spent two weeks at Kaiserwerth in 1850 and later visited the institution again in 1851 and was named Superintendent for Establishment for Gentlewomen during Illness. She became famous when she took with her a team of thirty nurses to Scutari where they were met with a lot of resistance from medics who refused them to take care of the sick and injured soldiers. She however did not give up and devoted her time and energy to improving bad conditions in the camps through the introduction of communal as well as personal hygiene, organization of excellent food supply, getting hold of medical supplies, and basic sanitary conditions like washing of hands and also the importance of fresh air. In a span of two to three weeks, the opposition she had earlier faced was no more and the nurses were then called back to come and take care of the sick. Florence Nightingle was viewed as an idol by the soldiers because she brought hope and comfort to the sick just by the light of the lamp she used t carry at night, hence she was later came to be known as the Lady of the Lamp. In the case of Australia, very little interest was paid for the care of the sick when the original English colony was established at Sydney Cove. In 1811, Sydney hospital was opened and the staff included of female convicts with some male convicts also carrying out nursing duties. They were however received no wages for the labor they offered although they received their keep. The nurses’ behavior here was wanting and they were known to be of poor character with them being drunk in most cases while on duty. In 1811, Australia opened its first lunatic asylum and it was characterized by untrained mental attendants. As a way of control, huge numbers of disturbed individuals were literally restrained because most of the staff were custodians and there was no emphasis whatsoever on treatment (Funnel et al, 2005, p. 5). In 1838, the first group of trained nurses arrived in Sydney. They were five in number. The influence of Nightingale was experienced in 1868. The principles of Nightingale were gradually adapted and the physically ill could now be cared for. Nurses were not left behind either. Practical skills were taught to them such as those of leeching, dressing, as well as administering enemas. Emphasis was however put on their punctuality, sexual purity, cleanliness, and most importantly obedience. A huge percentage of nursing comprised of housekeeping, and was dominated by house hold work. It was however acknowledged that compassion and also dignity were characteristics that were desirable for all those who took care of the sick. The necessity for nurses training in Australia grew as scientific advances continued to be made. By the year 1900, most of the Australian hospitals had a three year training program for student nurses where lectures were delivered by the medical staff. The students could not however maintain their concentration in class as a result of long hours of work. IN the wake of the twentieth century, conflict would arise whether nursing should be viewed as a vocation, subordinate to medicine, or as a profession which is different but of equal status with medicine. (Funnel et al, 2005, p. 6) add that in the year 1867, an Act of Parliament was passed which stated that all individuals displaying signs of mental impairments should be sent to mental asylums and not prisons. As a result, the developmentally disabled were then able to be separated from the mentally ill. Nursing in these mental asylums was delivered mostly by male attendants, and even though care remained and continued to be custodial, the medical staff was able to offer some lectures to these attendants. This is the period in which female attendants begun receiving serious considerations. As the increase in training of nurses continued to increase, so was the agitation for nurses’ registration. In 1920, South Australia was the first of the states to pass the relevant legislation followed by Western Australia in 1922 and Victoria and New South Wales in 1924. Industrial issues emerged as the sense of professionalism emerged among nurses. In 1924, the Australian Nursing Federation was able to hold its first meeting and the meting addressed several issues including the improved working conditions, improved wages, and the need for greater professional acknowledgment. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (1986), home nursing in Australia started in 1885 when a group of concerned nationals came together in Victoria and founded the Melbourne District Nursing Service. The main objective of the group was to look after the underprivileged sick people at home. Since then, nursing services have been seen to spread to every territory and state. Today, there are more than two hundred institutions using modern technology to take care of the sick and at the same time offer both general and specialized nursing services to the citizens of Australia. Australian Bureau of Statistics states that the link with district nurses from England is apparent in the growth of nursing institutes in Australia. In England, nurses begun to be trained for work districts in 1848. One, Mr. William Rathborne, in 1859, saw the need to provide a nurse who was meant to work amongst the poor in Liverpool. He later founded a training school for district nurses using his own personal finances. These nurses were not only seen as caring but also as social reformers due to their knowledge and also direct contact they established with those they cared for. During Queen Victoria’s Jubilee Year in 1887, some of the funds collected for her gift were given by the queen for the setting up of Queen Victoria’s Jubilee Institute of Nurses. Throughout England for many years, the establishment facilitated both the employment and training of district nurses. A considerable number of district nurses also came to undertake this particular training program. The relevant information regarding district nursing services was brought to Australia by Dr. Caffyn and Rev. C. Strong who were from England. They were both very instrumental when it came to setting up the first home nursing in Australia which was known as the Melbourne District Nursing Society (204). According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the first State to introduce a district nursing service in Australia was that of Victoria in 1885. It was then followed by South Australia in the year 1894, then came Tasmania in 1896, New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia in 1900, 1904, and 1905 respectively. One notable nursing service was the Blue Nursing Service. According to the history of Blue care, Blue care started off being known as the Blue Nursing Services. The service came to be through the vision and urgings of Rev. Arthur Preston, who was the founder. There was a great shortage of hospital beds in Australia and the nursing bodies that were in existence then were not able to cope with the demands of an ever growing population. This was the reason the founders saw the need to establish a new home nursing service to cater for this rising need. In 1977, together with the Methodist and Presbyterian churches, Blue Nursing was seen as a uniting factor in Australia. It is evident from the history of district nursing that the establishment of all nursing organizations was triggered by identified health care needs present in the society. At fist, focus was mainly at the poor, disadvantaged, and the sick. Services were however later made accessible to everyone in society. This was attributed to the government started issuing subsidies to most of these organizations. Nursing institutions today operate in very different structures and also under different support like voluntary bodies, local government, and hospitals. At the same time, nurses working in these organizations share one common goal and commitment: that of providing quality care in the society. There has been new demand on those nurses working in the society caused by the increased development of both technological and medical services. This has its results as people are now being discharged from hospitals earlier and also at a more accurate stage of sickness. Nurses have been forced to further and upgrade their current education so that they can keep up with helping and providing quality care to the community. For Australia, district nursing is a record of success. Realizing their extended roles as nurses which are based on their expertise, experience, as well as knowledge is crucial if at all effectiveness is to be maintained in delivery of their services.

Time Warner :: essays research papers

In January 2000, AOL and Time Warner announced a record setting $166 Billion Dollar merger. Referred to as â€Å"the Deal of the Century† the talk immediately centered on the potential synergies the new company would realize. Steve Case, announced as Chairman, championed the idea of AOL/Time Warner as the â€Å"Wal-Mart† of the media and entertainment industry – a one-stop shop marketplace for advertisers to reach their audience. Case envisioned fully integrated advertising campaigns with bundled AOL/Time Warner products. The idea was simple enough: through a single point of contact, a marketer like Pepsi could get product placement in a major event movie, run a sweepstakes promotion on the web with the winner appearing in a Warner Brothers sitcom, sponsor a Warner Music artist’s concert tour and distribute a national print and television branding campaign. Investors applauded. AOL/Time Warner’s scale & scope would give it a clear advantage over stand alone competitors. Furthermore, with the integration of Time Warner, AOL, the leading ISP, with 40% of the US market, would be able to differentiate its products with proprietary content from such established brands as People Magazine and Sports Illustrated. Time Warner executives, in turn, saw AOL as a new distribution pipeline into consumer households that could be used to promote and extend their collection of brands. The deal seemed to make sense for both sides. So what went wrong? The big question these days is: Should Time Warner sell AOL? Is the company stronger together or apart? Over the past year, analysts, investors and company executives have grappled with this issue. Since it helps to understand a company’s past when making a decision about its future, we have structured this presentation in the following format: First we will briefly review AOL & Time Warner’s market positions as separate companies. Second we will cover the complex merger issues that concerned federal regulators. And third, we will take a look at the period directly following the merger’s approval. Finally, once we have painted the full picture of the merger and its results, we will conclude with our recommendation for the company’s future. Prior to merging with AOL, Time Warner, was itself the result of two successful mega mergers. The first was in 1989 when Time-Life, a print media company, merged with Warner Communications, an entertainment company with interests in movies and music. This was subsequently followed up with the merger of Turner Broadcasting Systems, Ted Turner’s Atlanta based company with cable properties like TNT and CNN. These two mergers had created a powerful, vertically and horizontally integrated media company but still, something was missing.

Compare the Lutheran and Calvinist Reformations

Like the family and the economy, religion is a universal and pervasive phenomenon, a part of the cultural system, because it is assumed to meet some basic need of human being. Religion is an integrated part of human experience and shows remarkable continuity through time. Even in the modern secularized societies in the West, religion has persisted and still exerts a great influence in the lives of people. Almost all known peoples in all places and times have some set of specific cultural patterns made up of beliefs and codes of conduct, tinged with emotional views, an explanation or justification of human behavior and social organization regarding the distribution of power between the leaders and the governed, the moral code, the distribution of wealth, or the success of some and failure of others may be found in religion. Religious, beliefs and practices have been debated by various religious sectors and it includes the Lutheran and Calvinist reformations. This paper compares and contrasts the doctrines and beliefs between Lutheran and Calvinist Reformations. II. Discussion A. Calvinism and its beliefs The theology and system of church practices based on the teachings of the protestant Reformation leader John Calvin. It is the doctrine of the Presbyterian and the Reformed churches and is part of the heritage of Baptists, the Congregationalists, and certain other Christian groups. Calvin’s thought is most completely expressed in his Institute of the Christian Religion (1536). Other significant documents of Calvinism are the Canons of Dort (1619), the doctrinal basis of the reformed churches; and the Westminster Confession (1646), the traditional Presbyterian creed. Fundamental to early Calvinism was the belief in God’s absolute sovereign will over the affairs of man. To do God’s will was man’s first duty. According to the doctrine of original sin, Adam, the first man, was created pure and did God’s will. Adam’s sin, however, resulted in man’s fall from this state. Thus, all mankind was infected with â€Å"a total depravity,† leaving man free to sin but not to do good. All were rightfully damned (R. Po-Chia Hsia & Henk Van Nierop, pp. 234-236, 2002). The strict Calvinist doctrine of limited atonement held that Christ’s death atoned for the sins of a limited few, not all mankind. The limited few, called the elect, were thus saved. According to predestination, Calvin’s most widely known doctrine; God decreed eternal life for the elect and eternal damnation, or reprobation, for the rest. According to the idea known as irresistible grace, individuals elected by God to be saved by his grace could not choose to resist it. Calvinist, like most other early Protestants, emphasized the doctrine of justification, which dealt with the condition of man’s salvation. A saved individual was made righteous by God’s grace, and by God’s judgment was declared just, or acceptable. Good works by an individual could not achieve his salvation or justification: he had to live by faith alone. However, his faith was expressed outwardly in strict moral and righteous conduct and good works. To a Calvinist, the ability to base one’s life in faith was probable evidence that one was saved from sin and numbered among the elect (Kingdon, p.45, 2006). In Calvinism, Scripture became the supreme authority in faith and life. Calvinists believed that the Bible designated only two sacraments—baptism and Holy Communion. Calvin’s notion of the church government in which the church elects elders, or presbyters, to govern its affairs came from the Bible and was adopted by the Presbyterian and the Reformed Churches. This idea of representational church government was an important influence on the development of modern democracy. In the 17th century, some Dutch theologians and the English Puritans added to Calvinism the covenant theology. The covenant was a contractual relationship between the Christian and God. The sacraments were given as seals of the covenant. There were two covenants that God made with man—the covenant of works was made with Adam; the covenant of grace was made in Jesus Christ (Van Bruaene, pp.481-489, 2004). The covenant theology, which became central to Puritanism in England and America, softened the doctrine of predestination by giving recognition to human cooperation in achieving salvation. B. Lutheran and its beliefs These are Protestant Christians who follow the teachings of Martin Luther, the leader of the German Reformation. Lutherans form the largest group of Protestants. The Lutherans are the largest religious group in Germany; they claim more than 95 percent of the people of the Scandinavian countries; and they have strong minorities in many other countries. Lutherans in the United States number about 8,460,000 and are the nation’s fourth largest religious group. Lutherans places strong emphasis on doctrine. It affirms that the Bible is the sole rule of faith and accepts all traditional Protestant Christian doctrines. Distinctive Lutheran beliefs are defined in Luther’s two catechisms, the Augsburg Confession, the Schmalkaldic Articles, and the Formula of Concord (Anderson, pp.121-125, 2001). The chief Lutheran tenet is justification by faith alone. Salvation, according to this belief, does not come through food works. Rather, it comes by the faith of believers that God has forgiven their sins through the Sacrifice of Christ, and that by Gods grace they have been justified (become righteous). Lutheranism has two sacraments, baptism and the Lords Supper. Lutherans believe that in Holy Communion there is no physical change in the bread and wine, but that Christ is truly present to forgive sins and to renew the spiritual life of believers. Lutheran churches make greater use of liturgy the most Protestant churches, but there are differences in forms of public worship among Lutheran bodies (Braaten, pp. 83-86, 2004). There are differences also in church government. The Lutheran churches in Europe have bishops. In the United State the local congregation is the unit of church organization and the source of authority. During the 19th century congregations combined in synods, or regional groupings (Arnold, p.47, 2002).   After 1900 many synods united to form national denominations. Some synods are advisory bodies while others have a considerable amount of authority. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America was form in 1987 by a merger of the American Lutheran Church, the Lutheran Church in America, and the Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches. The denomination has 5,300,000 members, two of the denomination that make up the church were born out of mergers; and one, the association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches, was a group that seceded from the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod (Braaten, pp. 83-86, 2004). The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod believes in strict adherence to the Bible and to all Lutheran confessions. This denomination, of German origin, was founded in 1847 by the Rev. Cal F. W. Walther. The Missouri Synod has about 2,630,000 members. It has many congregations in Canada (Rogness, pp. 364-366, 2000). The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod is one of the conservative Lutheran bodies, holding without reservation to the Lutheran confessions and the infallibility of the Bible.   The church was organized in Milwaukee in 1850. It has congregation in most states of the Union and has some 400,000 members. Other Bodies. There are several small Lutheran denominations. Thy include the Apostolic Lutheran Church of America (6,000 members), Association   of Free Lutheran Congregations(19,000 members), Church of the Lutheran Brethren of America (12,000 members) Church of the Lutheran Confession (9,000 members), Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church (7,000 members), Evangelical Lutheran Synod (20,000 members), Latvian Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (14,000 members), Protestant Conference (Lutheran), Inc. (1,000 members), and World Confessional Lutheran Association (1,300 members) (Nelson, p.17, 2002). III. Conclusion In conclusion, by the early 20th century, only a few Protestant churches held to the strict Calvinism of the 16th and 17th centuries. Most churches characterized as Calvinist have either greatly modified or rejected such doctrines as election, predestination, and irresistible grace to give man a free will to determine his salvation. Moreover, there was much rivalry between Lutherans and the Reformed Church, which was founded by John Calvin. The reformed faith gained considerable support in some German states. During the 19th century the Lutheran and Reformed groups formed union churches in many of the states. Reference: Anderson, C.S. Faith and Freedom: The Christian Faith According to the Lutheran Confession, pp.121-125, (Augsburg, 2001). Arnold, D.W. The Way, the Truth, and the Life: an Introduction to Lutheran Christianity, p.47 (Baker Book House, 2002). Braaten, C.E., editor. The New Church Debate: Issues Facing American Lutheranism pp. 83-86, (Fortress Press, 2004). Kingdon, Robert M. The Disciplinary Revolution: Calvinism and the Rise of the State in Early Modern Europe.   Renaissance Quarterly, Vol. 59, p.45. 2006 Nelson, E.C. The Rise of World Lutheranism, p.17 (Fortress Press, 2002). Rogness, A.N. The Story of the American Lutheran Church, pp. 364-366, (Augsburg, 2000). Van Bruaene, Anne-Laure. Calvinism and Religious Toleration in the Dutch Golden Age. Renaissance Quarterly, Vol. 57, pp.481-489, 2004. R. Po-Chia Hsia, Henk Van Nierop. Calvinism and Religious Toleration in the Dutch Golden Age.   pp. 234-236, Cambridge University Press, 2002      

Why Is The Killing Of A Million A Lesser Crime - 1440 Words

Genocide Essay â€Å"Why is the killing of a million a lesser crime than the killing of an individual?† -Raphael Lemkin referring to genocides. Genocides are organized exterminations committed with intent to destroy a whole group based on religion, ethnicity, and race. The Holocaust, the Armenian genocide, Darfur, and the Rwanda genocide were all terrible events in history, but why did they occur? The form of genocide had existed since the perception of superiority and inferiority was known. As a superior group gains more and more power, they make an image of their perfect society in their head and strive towards it. They would decimate those who opposed them and anyone they saw as inferior, which is an example of how a genocide can start. Hitler was the leader of the Nazis, and he pursued his plans to annihilate the entire â€Å"inferior† race of Jews, which he thought was a burden to his empire. In the Armenian genocide, the Young Turks attempted to terminate t he Armenians, which they also thought were inferior and untrustworthy. Although the Holocaust and the Armenian genocide are both genocides in which a specific group of people were being targeted, they differ in terms of leaders and their purpose for starting the genocide, the races that were targeted and how they were killed, and the impact it has on people today. (history.com) Both the Armenian genocide and the Holocaust were disastrous genocides, but they could not happen without its leaders. The leader of theShow MoreRelatedHistory of Capital Punishment Essay997 Words   |  4 Pageshomicide, has generally been â€Å"the death penalty†. This seems to be the most logical punishment. If someone intentionally kills an innocent human being, why should he be able to live? Or should he? Should he be forced to suffer for the remainder of his life for this terrible crime? 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